Leo Martínez
The creation of paint has a long history, with humans using paint for cave wall decorations as early as 38,000 BC. In the 19th century, the process of making paint evolved significantly, with the advent of pre-mixed paints in the 1870s, and the invention of synthetic colours. Before the 19th century, paint was generally mixed on-site and had a short shelf life. The base of the paint depended on its use, with water-based paints used on ceilings and walls, and oil-based paints used for joinery. By the 1800s, paint mills were powered by steam, and the creation of large quantities of paint became easier. The rest of the 19th century saw the creation of many synthetic colours, with French chemist Jean-Baptiste Guimet creating a synthetic version of ultramarine in 1826. By the end of the century, almost any colour could be purchased at a low price.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Paint base | Oil or water |
| Pigments | Organic sources like iron oxides of ochre and sienna, cochineal, lapis lazuli, plants, sand, different soils, etc. |
| Binder | Linseed oil, hide glue, egg yolk, etc. |
| Paint mills | Steam-powered |
| Paint manufacturing | Small batches, mixed on-site |
| Paint application | Brushes, rollers, and spray |
| Paint types | Oil, distemper, milk paints, egg tempera, encaustic wax-based paints |
| Paint colours | Prussian blue, chrome yellow, ultramarine, etc. |
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What You'll Learn
Lead-based pigments were replaced by zinc oxide
In the 19th century, paint was mostly made with either oil or water as a base. Steam-powered paint mills made it easier to manufacture large quantities of paint. Lead-based pigments were commonly used as they accelerated drying time, increased durability, maintained a fresh appearance, and resisted moisture that caused corrosion.
However, lead was also toxic and hazardous to health. As such, non-toxic alternatives were sought, and white lead was replaced by titanium dioxide, which was considered safe enough for use in food colouring and toothpaste. Titanium white, however, had issues with overpowering other pigments and leading to "chalkiness" in mixtures.
Zinc oxide was another alternative to lead-based pigments. It was first introduced in the 1910s and 1920s as a less toxic substitute. While zinc oxide gave a brighter, colder white, it was also partially transparent, so more material was needed to cover up another colour. This made it less ideal for use on paper, where zinc is prone to causing discolouration over time. Nevertheless, zinc oxide allowed paint to absorb 12 to 15 times more water than lead, making it ideal for Americans who were encouraged to wash their walls regularly to prevent the spread of infectious diseases.
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Synthetic colours were created in labs
As understanding of chemistry progressed, scientists began to experiment with creating synthetic colours in laboratories. In the early 1700s, a Prussian chemist accidentally created a dark Prussian blue while trying to make red. Over a century later, in 1826, French chemist Jean-Baptiste Guimet created a synthetic version of ultramarine, called French ultramarine, by heating kaolinite, sodium carbonate, and sulphur in a kiln.
In 1856, 18-year-old English chemist William Henry Perkin discovered one of the first marketable synthetic dyes, which he named mauveine. While attempting to create a treatment for malaria, Perkin experimented with coal tar, a thick, dark liquid by-product of coal-gas production. Although his experiment failed, the residue stained silk a brilliant purple. This discovery changed the course of history, as it led to advances in medicine, explosives, photography, and plastics. It also sparked a new synthetic dye industry, with Germany at the forefront.
By the mid-1800s, synthetic colours were being industrially manufactured for use in spraying cars and decorating households and businesses. Artists also embraced these paints, attracted by their fast-drying properties compared to traditional oils. Over the next century, many more artificial colours were introduced, driving down prices and making paint affordable for all. By the end of the 19th century, almost any colour could be purchased for a relatively low price.
The development of synthetic alizarin, a dye whose structure was determined by chemists, further expanded the market for synthetic colours. By the mid-nineteenth century, other chemical components of natural madder were identified and applied, including purpurin, which produced a delicate lilac colour, and green alizarin. These synthetic colours were easily obtainable from coal tar, and Germany dominated the synthetic alizarin market.
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Oil or water was used as a base
In the 18th and early 19th centuries, before the advent of pre-mixed paints in the 1870s, interior house paint was generally mixed on-site and in small batches. These paints generally had short shelf lives and were made as they were needed. Paints could be sorted into two primary categories: oil and distemper. The main difference was the binder used to suspend the pigment in the paint. For oils, the binder was linseed oil. In distemper, the pigment was mixed with hide glue and water.
Linseed oil was also increasingly used as an inexpensive binder in the 19th century. In 1866, Sherwin-Williams in the United States opened as a large paint maker and invented a paint that could be used straight from the tin without preparation. By the mid-1800s, industrially manufactured paints were being produced for spraying cars or decorating households and businesses. Artists also used these paints, attracted by their fast-drying rate compared to traditional oils.
In the 19th century, paint was also made from milk (casein), where the medium is derived from the natural emulsion of milk. This type of paint was used by the earliest Western artists. Egg tempera, where the medium is an emulsion of raw egg yolk mixed with oil, was also used in the 19th century and remains in use today.
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Linseed oil was a common binder
In the 19th century, paint was made from a variety of materials, including natural pigments and synthetic colours. While paint could be bought in tubes and cans, artists often made their own colours. Linseed oil was a common binder used in paint during this period.
Linseed oil, extracted from flax seeds, has been used as a binder in oil paints for centuries. In the 19th century, it was commonly used as a base for house paints and artists' colours. The oil was often treated with various methods, such as water washing, heat treatments, and the addition of driers, to prepare it for use in painting. These treatments influenced the drying and ageing of the paint.
Linseed oil was favoured for its unique properties, which made it ideal for use in painting. It has a relatively long drying time compared to other oils, allowing artists to work with the paint for extended periods before it dried. This made it particularly suitable for artists who worked in layers, as the slow drying time allowed for more intricate techniques.
Additionally, linseed oil was known for its ability to absorb and hold pigments effectively. This property made it a versatile medium for creating a wide range of colours. It was also compatible with a variety of pigments, both natural and synthetic, allowing artists to experiment with different hues.
The versatility and effectiveness of linseed oil as a binder contributed to its widespread use in the 19th century. Artists and paint manufacturers favoured it for its ability to create rich, vibrant colours and its ease of use. While other binders were available, such as egg yolk and walnut oil, linseed oil remained a popular choice due to its superior performance and the desirable characteristics it imparted to paints.
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Artists used industrial paints
The 19th century witnessed a period of significant transformation for artists, with the introduction of new colours and improved variants of existing pigments. This was largely driven by the burgeoning demand for textile dyes, which spurred the development of novel pigments and dyes. The emergence of synthetic pigments, such as cobalt blue (1807), viridian (1838), cadmium yellow (1820), cerulean blue (1860), and synthetic French ultramarine, zinc white, and cobalt violet, expanded the artistic palette. These synthetic pigments not only offered new colours but also provided cheaper alternatives to traditional pigments.
The Industrial Revolution played a pivotal role in reshaping artistic practices. Artists, rejecting the mechanisation and speed of the industrial age, often sought inspiration in nature, giving rise to movements like Romanticism, Impressionism, and the Hudson River School. The affordability of travel via steamship enabled artists to explore the globe, fostering the fusion of diverse cultural styles and influences in their work.
During this period, artists also embraced industrial paints, which were originally intended for spraying cars or decorating households and businesses. These paints offered a faster drying rate compared to traditional oils, appealing to artists like Pablo Picasso. Picasso, in particular, favoured the use of industrial paints, especially a type of enamel paint manufactured by Ripolin, to create unique colours and textures in his works.
The invention of the tin paint tube by John Goffe Rand in 1843 further revolutionised the art world. Artists were no longer confined to their studios, as paint could now be easily transported and preserved, facilitating a new era of artistic mobility and exploration.
While artists in the 19th century had access to a broader range of colours due to synthetic pigments and industrial paints, they also faced challenges with pigment toxicity and colour permanence. Certain colours, like emerald green, posed health risks, and the fading of watercolours remained a concern. Despite these issues, the 19th century marked a pivotal era in the history of art, witnessing the emergence of Modern Art and a newfound appreciation for the artistic possibilities that industrial paints presented.
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Frequently asked questions
In the 19th century, paint was generally mixed on-site and in small batches. These paints were made of either oil or distemper. In oil paints, linseed oil was used as a binder, while in distemper, pigment was mixed with hide glue and water. The pigments generally came from organic sources like the iron oxides of ochre and sienna to yield colours like yellow ochre and burnt sienna.
In the 19th century, common pigments included yellow ochre, blue-green, and a darker green. These pigments generally came from organic sources like plants, sand, soils, and minerals.
In the 19th century, paint was ground in steam-powered mills. The pigments were ground using a muller and slab, with the muller being a large, hand-held stone used to grind the pigment against the slab.
