Elena Rossi
Chinese painting is one of the world's oldest continuous artistic traditions, with a long history of recording the country's rich culture and landscapes. Ancient Chinese paintings were often done on hand scrolls or large silk scrolls, using brushes dipped in black ink or coloured pigments. The art of calligraphy was inseparable from painting, with the two sharing essentially the same techniques. The most popular subject for ancient Chinese paintings was mountain scenery, as mountains were associated with religion and represented human eminence. One of the most famous ancient Chinese paintings is Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival by Zhang Zeduan of the Northern Song Dynasty (960 - 1127). This large silk scroll, now housed in the Palace Museum in Beijing, depicts the daily life of people of all ranks in the capital city of Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng, Henan Province) during the Qingming Festival in the Northern Song Dynasty.
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What You'll Learn
Ancient Chinese art and calligraphy
Chinese art has arguably the world's oldest continuous tradition, marked by a high degree of continuity within and consciousness of that tradition. Ancient Chinese art includes jade carvings, ceramics, textiles, and paintings.
Chinese painting is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world. Traditional painting involves the same techniques as calligraphy and is done with a brush dipped in black ink or coloured pigments. The most popular materials on which paintings are made are paper and silk. The finished work can be mounted on scrolls, such as hanging scrolls or handscrolls. Traditional painting can also be done on album sheets, walls, lacquerware, folding screens, and other media.
Landscape painting is traditionally at the top of the hierarchy of Chinese painting styles. It is associated with refined scholarly taste and the philosophy of Daoism, which emphasizes harmony with the natural world. Chinese artists usually paint imaginary, idealized landscapes. Mountain scenery is the most popular subject to paint because mountains are associated with religion and are stable and permanent, suggesting the eminence of imperial power.
Calligraphy, or "beautiful writing", is considered the supreme visual art form in China, even more valued than painting and sculpture. It is viewed as a means of self-expression and cultivation. The earliest examples of Chinese writing are inscriptions on oracle bones (animal bones and turtle shells) and bronze vessels. The basic materials used in calligraphy were perfected during the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE): brush, ink, paper, and inkstone. Brushes were made from animal hair or feathers and cut to a tapering end, then tied to a bamboo or wood handle. Ink was made from grinding ink stones with water. Paper was made from various fibres, such as mulberry, hemp, and bamboo, and provided an inexpensive alternative to silk. Brush, ink, ink stone, and paper are collectively referred to as the "Four Treasures of the Study".
There were five main scripts in ancient Chinese calligraphy: seal script, clerical script, regular script, cursive script, and drafting script. Each script type has its own defining visual traits and lends itself to different kinds of textual content and function.
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The Six Principles of Chinese Painting
Chinese painting is one of the world's oldest continuous artistic traditions. Traditionally, Chinese painting is done with a brush dipped in black ink or coloured pigments; oils are not used. The most popular materials on which paintings are made are paper and silk, and the finished work can be mounted on scrolls, such as hanging scrolls or handscrolls.
The "Six Principles of Chinese Painting" were established by Xie He, a writer, art historian and critic in 5th-century China. They are also referred to as the "Six Canons of Painting" or the "Six Laws" of Painting. These principles are:
- Spirit Resonance or Spirit Harmony: This is the energy that encompasses the theme, work and artist. Xie He stated that without Spirit Resonance, there was no need to look further. It is the most mysterious and most important principle, representing the ability to give a painting life.
- Bone Method or Brushwork: This refers to the way of using the brush, including texture and brush stroke. It also refers to the close link between handwriting and personality, as the art of calligraphy was inseparable from painting.
- Accurate Likenesses or Visual Virtuosity: The artist's ability to draw good likenesses. This principle became the focus of a debate between representation and free expression. It was agreed that the subject of a painting should have a recognisable form, but many felt that capturing the spirit of the subject was more important.
- Versatile Colours: The colours used in the painting should match the hues of nature. However, with the increased interest in landscape painting after the 10th century, artists began to move away from strong colours, eventually giving up colour completely in favour of black and white, which they believed captured nature more effectively.
- Well-Planned Space: This principle refers to the proper balance of elements in a painting and achieving three-dimensional space. Unlike Western art, where the view is seen through a window, the Chinese handscroll offers a shifting point of view of depth, height and subject matter, giving the work a sense of time.
- Venerated Tradition - Learn by Copying the Master: Copying the masters was considered a way of showing respect and honouring the past, as well as training for the artist. However, it was believed that a student could never be as good as the master, which has led to problems in authenticating works of art.
These principles have been interpreted and translated in varying ways over the centuries, and their application has changed according to the period and the artist.
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The influence of Taoism on landscape painting
Chinese painting is one of the world's oldest continuous artistic traditions, with a unique degree of continuity within and consciousness of that tradition. The decorative arts are extremely important in China, and painting in the traditional style is known as "guo hua" or "native painting". It involves the same techniques as calligraphy and is done with a brush dipped in black ink or coloured pigments. The most popular materials on which paintings are made are paper and silk.
Landscape painting is traditionally at the top of the hierarchy of Chinese painting styles and is associated with refined scholarly taste. The Chinese term for "landscape" translates to "mountains and water", and is linked with the philosophy of Taoism, which emphasizes harmony with the natural world. Chinese landscape paintings are fundamentally different from their Western equivalents, especially in their abundance of empty space and lack of realistic representation. This empty space depicts Absence, the generative emptiness from which landscape elements (Presence) emerge or vanish back into the void.
The development of Taoism-influenced landscape painting is attributed to Wang Wei, a student of Ch'an Buddhism and one of China's most famous poets. Wang Wei's paintings depicted the mountain landscape around his home, and his work preserved the simple style of the early landscape tradition. His paintings and poems demonstrated a Taoist/Ch'an cosmology that continues to influence modern art in the West.
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The Tang dynasty and the popularity of 'beautiful women' paintings
The Tang dynasty, spanning from 618 to 907, was a golden age for China, with a prosperous economy, flourishing culture, and powerful influence across the globe. This period witnessed the emergence of the "beautiful women painting" genre, which celebrated the beauty of female court ladies or "shinü," a term introduced by Zhu Jingxuan in his book, "Famous Paintings of the Tang Dynasty." These paintings depicted the idealised image of feminine beauty, with a focus on voluptuous bodies, round faces, and plump figures. The renowned artist Zhou Fang, through his works such as "Court Ladies Adorning Their Hair with Flowers," skilfully portrayed the aristocratic lifestyle of these women, dressed in elegant silken gowns adorned with floral or geometric motifs.
The Tang dynasty painters played a pivotal role in redefining female beauty through their art. Court painters like Zhang Xuan and Zhou Fang specialised in capturing the ambience and luxurious setting of the Tang court through their depictions of court ladies. This marked a shift from the previous era's focus on moral teachings, as the court lady genre began to reflect the leisurely and refined lives of noblewomen. The Tang dynasty painters incorporated influences from Central Asia, the Near East, and other regions, resulting in a unique fusion of artistic styles.
The Tang dynasty's aesthetic ideals stood in contrast to those of previous dynasties. The notion of "thin beauty" was replaced by a preference for "plump beauty," with full breasts, buttocks, and curved physiques. This shift reflected a focus on health and vitality rather than fragility. The paintings of the Tang dynasty ladies, with their bold personalities and confident demeanours, broke away from the traditional portrayal of gentle and delicate beauty.
The popularity of beautiful women paintings in the Tang dynasty extended beyond canvases. The concept of female beauty was explored in tomb murals, poems, statuettes, and even ceramics. The ceramics of this period were renowned for their intricate paintings, often depicting flowers, animals, and people with elegant simplicity. The influence of Buddhism, Taoism, and traditional literature also found expression in the paintings of this era, enriching the artistic themes and subjects.
The Tang dynasty, with its flourishing art scene, played a pivotal role in the development of figure painting in China, particularly in the portrayal of female subjects. While the representations of court ladies during this period were thematically narrow, focusing primarily on aristocratic life, they set a precedent for future artistic movements. The Ming and Qing dynasties, for example, built upon this tradition, expanding the concept of "court lady paintings" to include women from various social classes, reflecting a broader view of female beauty and experiences.
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The Ming dynasty and the evolution of feminine beauty ideals
Chinese art has arguably the world's oldest continuous tradition, marked by an unusual degree of continuity within and a consciousness of that tradition. Traditional Chinese painting involves the same techniques as calligraphy and is done with a brush dipped in black ink or coloured pigments. The most popular materials on which paintings are made are paper and silk. The finished work can be mounted on scrolls, such as hanging scrolls or hand scrolls.
During the Tang dynasty (618–907), China had a prosperous economy and a flourishing culture. In this period, the genre of “beautiful women painting” enjoyed popularity. Zhou Fang (ca. 730–800), a Chinese artist from a noble background, created artworks in this genre. His painting 'Court Ladies Adorning Their Hair with Flowers' illustrates the ideals of feminine beauty and the customs of the time. In his paintings, Zhou Fang depicted Chinese court ladies with round faces and plump figures, dressed in long, loose-fitting gowns covered by transparent gauze. Their dresses were decorated with floral or geometric motifs. This depiction of feminine beauty was influenced by the fact that, in the Tang dynasty, a voluptuous body symbolized the ideal of feminine beauty.
During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the ideal of feminine beauty shifted towards slenderer and more delicate body types. Qiu Ying was a painter skilled at describing building structures and furnishings, as well as accurately representing architectural elements. He modelled ladies’ dresses after those of the Tang and Song dynasties, but their bodies were thinner, reflecting the new image of feminine beauty recognized in the Ming dynasty.
The evolution of feminine beauty ideals in ancient China was influenced by various factors, including cultural, religious, and philosophical beliefs. Confucianism and Taoism, for example, played essential roles in creating Chinese beauty ideals. The religious influences on Chinese beauty ideals closely tied outer beauty to inner beauty. Historically, an oval face, willow leaf eyebrows, long thin eyes, small lips, and a slim, fragile-looking body were preferred during certain periods, such as the Tang dynasty. At the same time, in the later Tang dynasty, fuller figures became more popular due to associations with good fortune and wealth.
In ancient China, a woman's social status and livelihood were often influenced by her ability to find an eligible husband, which was aided by fitting into the cultural ideals of beauty. As such, feminine beauty held a significant place in Chinese culture and society.
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