Lena Rivera
Roman fresco painting has been categorized into four distinct periods, known as the Pompeian Styles, which span from the Roman Republican to the Imperial periods. The first two styles, Incrustation and Architectural, emerged during the Republican era and are characterized by simple compositions and motifs. The latter two styles, Ornamental and Intricate, flourished during the Imperial period and exhibit greater complexity and sophistication. These styles were first delineated by German archaeologist August Mau in the 19th century, using wall paintings excavated from Pompeii, which offered a unique glimpse into the evolution of Roman art due to their preservation under volcanic ash.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Number of Styles | 4 |
| Style Names | Incrustation, Architectural, Ornamental, Intricate |
| Style Chronology | Republican Period (Incrustation and Architectural), Imperial Period (Ornamental and Intricate) |
| Style Characteristics | Incrustation: colourful, patchwork walls of faux-marble; Architectural: use of trompe l'œil and shading to create illusion of space; Ornamental: sophisticated and complex design and execution; Intricate: revival of large-scale narrative painting and panoramic vistas |
| Colours | Black, red, yellow, green, blue |
| Common Subjects | Greek mythology, sex, educated women, nature, still life |
| Techniques | Use of stucco, lead sheets, plaster, marble powder |
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What You'll Learn
First Style: 'Incrustation Style' or 'structural'
The First Style of Roman fresco painting, also known as the Incrustation Style or structural masonry style, is believed to have originated in the Hellenistic period, in the 3rd century B.C.E. in Alexandria. This style is characterised by colourful, patchwork walls of faux-marble, created using a variety of meticulously inserted colours. Each rectangle of painted marble was connected by stucco mouldings, adding a three-dimensional effect.
The Romans used costly imported marbles of various colours to decorate the walls of temples and other official buildings. Ordinary Romans, unable to afford such luxury, decorated their homes with painted imitations of luxurious yellow, purple, and pink marbles. Painters became adept at imitating marble, and large, rectangular slabs were rendered on walls, appearing marbled and veined like real stone.
The First Style embraced the flatness of the wall, and images and landscapes were introduced around 90 BC, gaining popularity from 70 BC onwards. These additions served to counteract the claustrophobic nature of small, windowless rooms in Roman houses. The style also featured trompe-l'œil, a technique that highlights certain elements to pass them off as three-dimensional realities, such as columns that divide the wall space into zones.
The First Style is traditionally dated to 200 BC until 80 BC, but outside of Pompeii, it existed much earlier, since the late 5th century BC. This style is often found in the lower zones of walls, with the upper sections featuring paintings from later styles.
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Second Style: 'Architectural Style' or 'illusionism'
The Second Style of Roman fresco painting, also known as the architectural style or illusionism, flourished between 80 BC and 14 AD. This style is characterised by the use of architectural elements and trompe-l'œil (trick of the eye) compositions to create the illusion of expansive vistas and open landscapes within the confines of interior walls. It marks a significant departure from the enclosed spaces depicted in the First Style.
The Second Style introduced a revolutionary approach to fresco painting, employing architectural features such as columns and stage platforms to extend the visual space of the room into imaginary landscapes. This technique, known as relative perspective, creates the illusion of three-dimensional realities and was widely used by the Romans to counteract the claustrophobic nature of their small, windowless rooms.
The Second Style retained the usage of marble blocks from the First Style, but with a more refined and detailed approach. Painters continued to imitate luxurious and expensive materials, such as marble, without incurring the associated costs. This was achieved through meticulous attention to detail, with a variety of colours inserted into different partitions to simulate the appearance of smooth or rusticated paintings.
The Dionysian paintings from Pompeii's Villa of the Mysteries are included in the Second Style due to their illusionistic aspects. The figures in these paintings are life-size, and they are positioned in front of columns that divide the space, suggesting that the action is surrounding the viewer. During this period, black, red, and yellow continued to be prominent colours, but the use of green and blue became more prominent than in previous styles.
The Second Style dominated the 1st century BC, with walls decorated with architectural features and trompe-l'œil compositions. This style slowly evolved, substituting elements from the First Style with new innovations.
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Third Style: 'Ornate Style'
The Third Style, also known as the Ornate Style, was a popular style of Roman fresco painting around 20–10 BC. This style was a reaction to the austerity of the previous period, allowing for more figurative and colourful decoration. The Ornate Style is characterised by its simplistic elegance and departure from illusionistic devices, though these later crept back into the style.
The style follows strict rules of symmetry, dictated by a central element. The wall is divided into three horizontal and three to five vertical zones, with the vertical zones separated by geometric motifs, bases, or slender columns of foliage hung around candelabra. This style leaves more wall space plainly coloured, with no design. The overall feeling is more ornamental, and these frescoes often present great finesse in execution.
The Third Style is often noted for its exquisite imagination. The very thin columns are agglomerated in a maze of forms that sometimes produce a disorienting effect, not at all like their appearance in real life. These small columns are sometimes supported by small animals, with cupids climbing their fine shafts, and spiral leaves twisting on themselves. The beauty of this style lies in the myriad of bright colours that appear and disappear in a small wall space. The centre of the walls in both the Third and Fourth Styles is often used to reproduce a famous painting from ancient Greek art.
The Third Style is considered a Baroque reaction to the Second Style's illusionism. The Second Style, also known as the architectural style, dominated the 1st century BC, where walls were decorated with architectural features and trompe-l'œil (trick of the eye) compositions. The Second Style retained the use of marble blocks, aiming to create the illusion of luxurious and expensive materials without the associated cost.
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Fourth Style: Less ornamented, more complex, revival of large-scale narrative painting
Roman frescoes were an ancient mural painting technique that involved applying pigments to freshly laid lime plaster. This allowed the colours to merge with the plaster's surface as it set, creating a durable and integral artwork. In Roman architecture, frescoes served as decorative elements and provided a solution to the challenge of windowless and dimly lit interiors. By adorning walls with vibrant scenes and colourful motifs, frescoes illuminated rooms, creating an illusion of light and space.
The Pompeian Styles, as delineated by August Mau, refer to four distinct periods in Roman fresco painting, spanning from the Roman Republican to the Imperial periods. The first two styles, incrustation and architectural, emerged during the Republican era and are characterised by their relatively simple compositions and motifs. The last two styles, ornamental and intricate, flourished during the Imperial period, exhibiting greater sophistication and complexity in design and execution.
The Fourth Style in Roman wall painting, dating from c. 60–79 AD, is generally less ornamented than its predecessor, the Third Style. However, it is much more complex. It revives large-scale narrative painting and panoramic vistas, retaining the architectural details of the Second and First Styles. This style is characterised by a textile-like quality, with tendrils connecting all the elements on the wall. The colours warm up, and scenes are drawn from mythology, landscapes, and other images. Intricate paintings used the entire wall, and the overall feeling of the walls formed a mosaic of framed pictures.
A prime example of the Fourth Style is the Ixion Room in the House of the Vettii in Pompeii. One of the most notable contributions of this style is the advancement of still life with intense space and light. Shading was very important in these Roman still lifes. This style was not seen again until the 17th and 18th centuries with Dutch and English decoration.
The Fourth Style is often referred to as the ornamental style, focusing on creating elaborate decorative compositions across entire walls. Architectural elements are transformed into fantastical designs, characterised by excessive ornamentation and intricate details. Figure paintings, if present, are smaller in scale or may be absent, replaced by formal subjects inspired by philosophical or exotic themes.
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Pompeian Styles: Intricate, ornamental, structural, architectural
The Pompeian Styles, as delineated by German archaeologist August Mau, have provided valuable insights for archaeologists in dating Roman structures with frescoes, particularly those found in Pompeii. These four distinct periods, spanning from the Roman Republican to the Imperial periods, offer a chronological framework for understanding the evolution of Roman fresco painting.
The first of the four Pompeian Styles is the structural or incrustation style. This style is characterised by the imitation of marble blocks, using stucco to create relief, and various vivid colours. It flourished between 200 and 80 BC and involved the use of architectural elements such as pilasters to create a sense of depth and perspective.
The second style is the architectural or illusionism style, which dominated the 1st century BC. This style is marked by the use of trompe-l'œil (trick of the eye) compositions, creating the illusion of three-dimensional realities. Walls were decorated with architectural features such as columns and marble blocks, dividing the wall space into zones. This style introduced a revolutionary approach to fresco painting, creating the illusion of expansive vistas and open landscapes within confined interior walls.
The third style is the ornamental style, which flourished between 15 BC and 50 AD. This style is characterised by a departure from illusionism and a focus on the interior space. The walls are flatter and closed off, with vertical zones separated by columns or candelabra. Small plants, animals, and scenes are painted, often with a central image depicting a mythological landscape.
The fourth style is the intricate or phantasy style, which emerged after 50 AD. This style is characterised by larger scenes and the return of vistas, with panoramic views and narrative paintings. The walls are often busy and use the entirety of the wall space, forming a mosaic of framed pictures. This style revives architectural details from the previous styles while also introducing more complex compositions.
Overall, the Pompeian Styles showcase the evolution of Roman fresco painting, with each style building upon the previous one and introducing new elements of complexity and sophistication. These styles provide valuable insights into the artistic tastes, cultural values, and daily life of the ancient Romans.
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Frequently asked questions
Four distinct styles of Roman fresco painting have been identified, with each style possessing its own unique characteristics.
The four styles of Roman fresco painting are structural or incrustation, architectural, ornamental, and intricate.
The first style, also known as the incrustation style, is characterised by colourful, patchwork walls of brightly painted faux marble.
The second style of Roman fresco painting, known as the architectural style, emerged during the early first century (90-25 BCE) and flourished between 80 BCE and 14 CE.
The fourth style is generally less ornamented than the third style but is more complex. It revives large-scale narrative painting and panoramic vistas while retaining some architectural details from the previous styles.
