Priya Kapoor
Sir Marc Aurel Stein, KCIE, FRAS, FBA, was a Hungarian-born British archaeologist, ethnographer, geographer, linguist, and surveyor. Stein is known for his expeditions and discoveries in Central Asia, including ancient manuscripts and paintings. He studied oriental languages and archaeology in England and put his linguistic skills to use during his expeditions. Stein's discoveries include ancient mathematical manuscripts, Buddhist artefacts, and manuscripts in various languages such as Tibetan, Sanskrit, and Khotanese. His collection of books and manuscripts from Dunhuang is significant for understanding Central Asian history and Buddhist art and literature. Stein's expeditions were funded by the Government of India and the British Museum, and his finds are now accessible in public collections.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of Birth | 26 November 1862 |
| Place of Birth | Budapest, Kingdom of Hungary, Austrian Empire |
| Parents | Náthán Stein and Anna Hirschler |
| Education | Studied Sanskrit and comparative philology at university; PhD in Old Iranian and Indology |
| Career | Archaeologist, ethnographer, geographer, linguist, surveyor, professor at Indian universities |
| Expeditions | Central Asia, India, Iran, Iraq, Chinese Turkestan (Xinjiang), Dunhuang, Southern Silk Road, Mongolian steppes, Russian Wakhan, Persia |
| Discoveries | Manuscripts, paintings, textiles, artefacts, mummies, ancient letters, religious texts, secular documents |
| Collections | British Library, British Museum, Indian institutions |
| Honours and Awards | Honorary degrees from Oxford and Cambridge, medals from the Asiatic Society, the Royal Geographical Society, and others |
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What You'll Learn
Aurel Stein's exploration of the Mogao Caves
Aurel Stein, a Hungarian-born British archaeologist, geographer, and linguist, is known for his exploration of Central Asia and ancient China. Stein's greatest discovery was made at the Mogao Caves, also known as the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas, located near Dunhuang in 1907.
Stein had first heard about Dunhuang and its Buddhist caves from his countryman, Count Lóczy, who had been there with a Hungarian expedition in the 1880s. However, the discovery of a hidden side cave, which had been sealed for 900 years, was what drew Stein to the site. This cave, known as the Library Cave or Cave 17, was uncovered in 1900 by the resident Daoist priest, Wang Yuanlu. It contained thousands of manuscripts, paintings, and other artefacts, dating from 406-1002 CE.
When Stein arrived at Mogao in 1907, the cave's contents had already been removed, and many items had been presented to local officials. Despite this, Stein was able to acquire a significant number of manuscripts and paintings from Wang Yuanlu. He took 24 cases of manuscripts and 4 cases of paintings, textiles, and relics. Among these items was a printed copy of the Diamond Sutra, which is the world's oldest printed text, dating to AD 868.
Stein's collection from the Mogao Caves is now held at the British Library and is an important resource for the study of Central Asian history and Buddhist art and literature. His discoveries at the site inspired other explorers and treasure hunters, and he was knighted for his contributions to scholarship. However, his actions were also controversial, with Chinese nationalists protesting against him and dubbing him a burglar.
In addition to his exploration of the Mogao Caves, Stein also made significant discoveries in other parts of Central Asia and China. He retraced his steps on the Southern Silk Road and trekked north to the Mongolian steppes, retrieving manuscripts left by Russian explorers. He also excavated sites in ancient Sogdiana and eastern Persia, advancing the field of Indian archaeology.
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Discoveries in Central Asia and China
Aurel Stein is best remembered for his discoveries in Chinese Turkestan (now Xinjiang) and Dunhuang. His travels and research in Central Asia, particularly in Chinese Turkistan, revealed much about its strategic role in history. He was a talented linguist, having mastered Greek, Latin, French, English, Hungarian, and German, which aided his expeditions in Asia.
Stein's second expedition took two years, and his discoveries included letters from Sogdian merchants in the Dunhuang limes, mummies in Loulan, Hellenized paintings at Miran, and the source of the Khotan river. He also brought back tens of thousands of paintings, manuscripts, and objects, along with surveys of the Southern Mountains (Qilian Shan, Gansu province), thousands of photographs, and notebooks.
Stein's greatest discovery was made at the Mogao Caves, also known as the "Caves of the Thousand Buddhas", near Dunhuang in 1907. He discovered the cave, unknown outside China, which had been walled up since the 11th century. It contained an extraordinary assemblage of paintings, temple banners, and documents.
Stein also discovered manuscripts in the previously lost Tocharian languages of the Tarim Basin at Miran and other oasis towns. He recorded numerous archaeological sites, especially in Iran and Balochistan. In 1901, he exposed forgeries of Islam Akhun and established the authenticity of manuscripts discovered before 1896 in northwest China.
Stein's fourth expedition to Central Asia ended in failure due to frustrations and rivalries between British and American interests in China. However, his work significantly advanced Indian archaeology. He identified approximately 100 prehistoric and historical sites and conducted exploratory excavations at some of them.
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The influence of Count Lóczy
Stein first heard about Dunhuang and its Buddhist caves from Count Lóczy, who had visited the site with a Hungarian expedition decades earlier. Intrigued by Lóczy's accounts, Stein set his archaeological goals further afield, beyond the “rediscovery” of Buddhism in the subcontinent that had been occurring in previous years. He aimed to explore the ancient Silk Road, a route also travelled by the 7th-century Chinese monk, Xuanzang, whose writings had helped identify sites related to the historical Buddha.
Stein's interest in Dunhuang was further piqued when he learned of an amazing discovery made in 1900, just before his arrival in the region. A small side cave, hidden for 900 years, had been uncovered by the resident Daoist priest, Wang Yuanlu. This cave contained thousands of paintings and manuscripts, as well as printed material in various languages, including Chinese and Tibetan. Wang Yuanlu sought to sell these treasures to fund his restoration work on the caves, and although he initially presented some paintings to local officials, he did not receive the desired patronage.
When Stein arrived in Dunhuang in 1907, he and Wang Yuanlu discovered their shared admiration for Xuanzang, and Wang Yuanlu eventually agreed to sell thousands of manuscripts and paintings to Stein for a small sum. This acquisition formed a significant part of Stein's collection, which also included tens of thousands of paintings, manuscripts, and objects from other sites along the Silk Road.
Stein's work in Central Asia and China was influenced by his desire to further scholarship and make his finds accessible to present and future researchers. This is evident in the fact that all of his discoveries are now housed in public collections, such as the British Museum and the British Library, where they continue to advance our understanding of ancient civilisations.
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Stein's linguistic skills
Aurel Stein was a Hungarian-born British archaeologist, geographer, ethnographer, linguist, and surveyor. He is best remembered for his exploration and discovery of Silk Road sites in Chinese Turkestan (now Xinjiang) and Dunhuang.
Stein had mastered Greek, Latin, French, and English while still in his teens, speaking Hungarian and German at home. He studied Sanskrit and comparative philology at the University of Vienna. He then transferred to Leipzig and, after a further year, to Tübingen to study for his doctorate in Old Iranian and Indology. In 1883, he received his PhD in Indology and Old Iranian from the University of Tübingen.
In 1884, Stein went to England to study oriental languages and archaeology. His linguistic skills, along with map-making learned during military service in Hungary, suited him well for his future adventures in Central Asia.
Stein's greatest discovery was made at the Mogao Caves, also known as the "Caves of the Thousand Buddhas", near Dunhuang in 1907. He discovered a printed copy of the Diamond Sutra, the world's oldest printed text, dating to AD 868, along with 40,000 other scrolls. He took 24 cases of manuscripts and four cases of paintings, decorated textiles, and relics.
Stein also discovered five letters written in Sogdian, known as the "Ancient Letters", in an abandoned watchtower near Dunhuang in 1907. These letters have proved invaluable for our understanding of various dimensions of Sogdian trade and culture.
Stein's collection of manuscripts and paintings from his travels through Central Asia during the 1920s and 1930s is now housed at the British Library. The collection includes Chinese, Tibetan, and Tangut manuscripts, Prakrit wooden tablets, and documents in Khotanese, Uyghur, Sogdian, and Eastern Turkic.
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Stein's expeditions to India, Iran and Iraq
Aurel Stein, a Hungarian-born British archaeologist, geographer, ethnographer, linguist and surveyor, made several expeditions to India, Iran and Iraq. He is primarily known for his explorations and archaeological discoveries in Central Asia.
India
Stein travelled to India in 1887, where he joined the University of the Punjab as Registrar. From 1888 to 1899, he served as the Principal of Oriental College, Lahore. During this time, he established the Raghunath Temple Sanskrit Manuscript Library at Jammu, which houses 5000 rare manuscripts. In 1892, he published his Sanskrit edition of the only known surviving ancient Indian historical work, the 12th-century Rājataraṅgiṇī by Kalhaṇa. Its English translation, A Chronicle of the Kings of Kaśmīr, was published in 1900.
Stein's expeditions to India were primarily focused on exploring and studying the antiquities of Central Asia. He made four major expeditions to Central Asia, including parts of India, between 1900 and 1901, 1906 and 1908, 1913 and 1916, and 1930. During his first journey, he discovered the Taklamakan Desert oasis of Dandan Oilik, where he uncovered numerous relics. In 1913-1916, he excavated at Khara-Khoto. He also explored the Pamirs, seeking the site of the now-lost Stone Tower, which was noted by Claudius Ptolemy as the halfway mark of the Silk Road.
Between 1940 and 1943, Stein undertook two expeditions along the Ghaggar-Hakra River to find physical evidence of the Saraswati River described in the Rig Veda. He identified approximately 100 prehistoric and historical sites, conducting excavations at some of them. His observations on the geographical spread of these sites proved valuable to later researchers.
Iran
Stein investigated ancient mounds in Iran and Balochistan, seeking to elucidate the relationship between Mesopotamian and Indus civilisations. He also carried out an archaeological reconnaissance of northwestern Iran, recording numerous archaeological sites.
Iraq
Stein carried out an aerial photographic reconnaissance of the Roman frontiers in Iraq.
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Frequently asked questions
Stein obtained ancient manuscripts and paintings through his expeditions to Central Asia, China, India, Iran, and Iraq. He was a talented linguist and scholar, and his expeditions were often funded by the Government of India and the British Museum.
Stein travelled to Chinese Turkestan (now Xinjiang), Dunhuang, and the Taklamakan Desert in Chinese Turkestan, among other places.
Stein discovered tens of thousands of paintings, manuscripts, and objects, including the Bower Manuscript and Weber Manuscript, the oldest known birch bark and paper manuscripts of ancient India at the time. He also found the Shahnama, written in Persian, and the Diamond Sutra, the oldest printed text known, dating to 868.
Stein's collections are currently held in the British Library and the British Museum, with items falling under the Departments of Asia, the Middle East, and Coins and Medals. Some items are also held in institutions in India.
Stein's overriding concern was to further scholarship and provide a haven for his finds. He wanted to make his discoveries accessible for present and future scholarship, and all of his finds are now in public collections.
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