Marcus Chen
The Nightmare, a 1781 oil painting by Swiss-English painter Henry Fuseli, depicts a woman sleeping with her arms thrown below her, as a demonic, ape-like incubus crouches on her chest and a horse with glowing eyes looks on. The painting, which shocked critics with its overt sexuality and haunting evocation of obsession, is considered a breakthrough success for Fuseli and a landmark in the development of the Romantic movement. While the precise intentions of the artist remain elusive, the painting has been interpreted as a reference to popular themes in 19th-century psychoanalysis, such as dreams, the unconscious mind, sleep paralysis, and the experience of nightmares.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Artist | Henry Fuseli |
| Year | 1781 |
| Medium | Oil on canvas |
| Dimensions | 180 x 250 cm |
| Current location | Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, MI, USA |
| Subject | A woman undergoing a nightmare as a demonic, ape-like incubus crouches on her chest and a horse looks on |
| Inspiration | Folklore, antique, classical, and Renaissance art, personal experiences of romantic rejection and unrequited love |
| Interpretations | Psychoanalytic theories, dreams and the unconscious, sleep paralysis, sexual menace, sublimated sexual instincts, female orgasm |
| Influence | Widely influential, especially on 18th-century Gothic fiction authors such as Mary Shelley |
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What You'll Learn
The painting's title and its meaning
The title of the painting, "The Nightmare", is a reference to the scene depicted in the artwork. The painting shows a woman sleeping with her arms thrown below her, experiencing a nightmare. The word "nightmare" is derived from "mara", a Scandinavian mythological term for a spirit sent to torment or suffocate sleepers. The early meaning of the word included the sleeper's experience of weight on the chest, sleep paralysis, dyspnea, or a feeling of dread.
The painting's composition includes a demonic, ape-like incubus crouching on the woman's chest, often described as a spirit that lies on people in their sleep or has sexual intercourse with unsuspecting women. The incubus can be interpreted as the cause of the nightmare, rather than the almost hidden horse (the "night-mare") in the background. The horse adds a Gothic tone to the painting and references folklore, where horses were associated with nocturnal visitations and ridden by witches and hags, giving rise to the term hag-riding.
The woman's pose, with her arms, neck, and head hanging off the bed, creates an unsettling and sexually menacing atmosphere. The red drapery falling off the bed suggests a river of blood, adding morbid undertones to the painting's dark themes. The single light source and dramatic use of lighting contrast contribute to the theatricality of the scene.
The painting has been interpreted in various ways, including as a personal portrayal of erotic love lost. Art historians and critics have suggested that the woman represents Anna Landholdt, the niece of Fuseli's friend, with whom he was romantically involved but whose father disapproved of his marriage proposal. The demon has been speculated to represent Fuseli himself, expressing his unrequited love and romantic rejection.
Overall, "The Nightmare" by Henry Fuseli is a striking and influential painting that continues to capture the imagination of viewers and critics alike.
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The artist's personal life
The artist behind 'The Nightmare', Henry Fuseli, was a Swiss-English painter and theologian who spent most of his life in Britain. He was born Johann Heinrich Füssli in 1741 and was known for his interest in the supernatural, as well as his scholastic accomplishments and artistic skill. Fuseli was educated as a Zwinglian minister in 1761 and was ordained into the Swiss Evangelical Reformed Church. However, his political activities in Zurich forced him into exile in 1761. He studied humanities, becoming proficient in three languages, and developed an interest in classical philology. Fuseli was also a professor of painting and edited Matthew Pilkington's 'Dictionary of Painters', which became a widely read art history text.
Fuseli's broad knowledge of art history is reflected in 'The Nightmare', with critics proposing sources for the painting's elements in antique, classical, and Renaissance art. The woman's pose, for example, may derive from the Vatican's Ariadne, while the style of the incubus may be linked to figures at the archaeological site in Selinunte, Sicily. Fuseli's painting also draws on his interest in literature, with his artworks often inspired by Shakespeare and Milton.
Fuseli's personal life influenced 'The Nightmare' in a significant way. The painting is believed to be a response to the romantic rejection he faced from Anna Landholdt, the niece of his friend Johann Kaspar Lavater. Fuseli had written about his fantasies involving Landholdt to Lavater in 1779, and his unsuccessful marriage proposal to her may have resulted in the painting's erotic and haunting portrayal of obsession. Art historian H.W. Janson suggests that the sleeping woman in 'The Nightmare' represents Landholdt, while the demon is Fuseli himself. This interpretation is supported by an unfinished portrait of a girl believed to be Landholdt on the back of the painting's canvas.
Fuseli's close relationships with scientists may have also influenced 'The Nightmare', as the painting reflects contemporary scientific theories about sleep and nightmares. The pose of the woman, for instance, may reflect theories about the physical causes of nightmares, such as sleeping with the head lower than the feet. The painting's depiction of a demonic spirit crouching on the woman's chest also aligns with the 18th-century understanding of nightmares, which included the description of a hallucination of "someone or something sitting on the chest."
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The woman's pose and its origins
The woman's pose in Henry Fuseli's "The Nightmare" is one of its most striking features. Art historian H. W. Janson and others have suggested that the sleeping woman represents Anna Landholdt, the niece of Fuseli's friend, with whom he had fallen in love. The pose may reflect contemporary theories about the physical causes of nightmares, such as sleeping with the head lower than the feet. The woman's arms are thrown below her as she sleeps, and her head and neck hang off the end of the mattress. This pose creates an air of sexual menace and has been described as "sexually receptive". Marcia Allentuck, in "Woman as Sex Object" (1972), argues that the intent is to show a female orgasm.
The woman's pose may also derive from classical art. Art critic Nicholas Powell compares the woman in the painting to the Sleeping Ariadne statue in the Vatican, and the incubus on her chest to Hellenistic depictions of hunchbacked beggars. Miles Chappell connects the painting to a Bacchanalian scene carved on a sarcophagus in Naples, in which sleeping women, called maenads, were often featured as objects of sexual desire. These classical motifs may have been influenced by Fuseli's broad knowledge of art history.
The woman's pose has also been interpreted as a reference to sleep paralysis, a phenomenon that Fuseli may have incorporated into the painting due to his close relationships with scientists. Sleep paralysis involves a loss of muscle control and can include hallucinations of frightening figures sitting on the sleeper's chest, increasing the feeling of suffocation. The early meaning of "nightmare" included the experience of weight on the chest, and Fuseli's use of composition and chiaroscuro heightens the sense of drama and uncertainty in the scene.
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The incubus and its significance
The incubus depicted in Henry Fuseli's 1781 painting "The Nightmare" is a demonic spirit or imp that visits women in their sleep, as per contemporary folklore. The painting shows the incubus crouching on a woman's chest, while a horse with glowing eyes and flared nostrils lurks in the background. The horse, or "night-mare", is a reference to the now-obsolete definition of the word "nightmare", which referred to an evil spirit or mara that tortured and suffocated sleepers. The painting's subject matter is not drawn from history, the Bible, or literature, but rather from the artist's imagination.
The incubus in "The Nightmare" has been interpreted as a visual pun on the word "nightmare" and a self-conscious reference to folklore. The figure's apelike appearance and pose on the woman's chest are suggestive of sexual intercourse, adding an air of sexual menace to the painting. This interpretation is supported by Fuseli's sexually explicit private drawings and the woman's "sexually receptive position". Art historian H.W. Janson suggests that the painting is a personal portrayal of the erotic aspects of Fuseli's love for Anna Landholdt, the niece of his friend, which went unreciprocated as she married a family friend soon after. The sleeping woman is believed to represent Landholdt, while the demon is thought to symbolise Fuseli himself.
The incubus in "The Nightmare" also holds significance in the context of 19th-century psychoanalytic theories. The painting has been interpreted as referencing popular themes in psychoanalysis, such as the troubled unconscious mind, dreams, and the meaning of nightmares. Sigmund Freud allegedly kept a reproduction of the painting in his apartment in Vienna. Additionally, the painting's imagery has been associated with sleep paralysis, a temporary inability to move or speak during sleep, often accompanied by hallucinations and a feeling of suffocating chest pressure. The composition of the painting, with its dramatic lighting and theatricality, further enhances the sense of horror and uncertainty conveyed by the incubus.
The painting's explicit sexuality and haunting evocation of obsession caused a scandal when it was first exhibited at the Royal Academy of London in 1782, marking a departure from the moralising subjects commonly found in popular paintings of that time. "The Nightmare" became Fuseli's first commercially successful work, with the artist producing at least three other versions. The image's popularity extended beyond the art world, influencing 18th-century Gothic fiction authors such as Mary Shelley.
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The horse and its interpretation
The horse in Henry Fuseli's 1781 painting "The Nightmare" is a visual pun on the word "nightmare". The painting depicts a woman undergoing a nightmare as a demonic and ape-like incubus crouches on her chest, giving rise to the term "'hag-riding'. The horse, or "night-mare", can be interpreted as a self-conscious reference to folklore, where horses were often linked with nocturnal visitations and were believed to be ridden by night-hags and witches. The presence of the horse in the painting destabilises the composition and adds to its Gothic tone.
The painting's subject matter is not drawn from history, the Bible, or literature, but it has yielded many interpretations. One theory suggests that the painting started as a visual pun, with the horse as an afterthought. The woman's pose may be based on the Vatican's Ariadne, while the style of the incubus may be inspired by figures at Selinunte, an archaeological site in Sicily. The horse may be linked to a woodcut by German Renaissance artist Hans Baldung or the marble Horse Tamers on Quirinal Hill in Rome.
The horse in "The Nightmare" can be interpreted as a visual representation of the physical experience of chest pressure and sleep paralysis associated with nightmares. The early meaning of the word "nightmare" included the experience of weight on the chest, sleep paralysis, dyspnea, or a feeling of dread. Fuseli's knowledge of contemporary scientific theories about the physical causes of nightmares, such as sleeping with the head lower than the feet, may have influenced the composition.
The horse may also symbolise the dark, irrational forces at play in the painting. "The Nightmare" is known for its unconventional subject matter, exploring themes of the unconscious mind, the terror of sleepers, and the powerful influence of dreams. The horse, lurking in the shadows, can be seen as a representation of the unknown horrors that trouble the unconscious mind.
Overall, the horse in "The Nightmare" serves multiple interpretive functions. It contributes to the composition's Gothic tone, symbolises the physical and psychological aspects of nightmares, and embodies the irrational forces that Fuseli sought to depict during the Enlightenment's "Age of Reason".
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Frequently asked questions
'The Nightmare' is an oil painting created in 1781 by the Swiss-English painter Henry Fuseli, born Johann Heinrich Füssli.
'The Nightmare' depicts a woman with her arms thrown below her, sleeping as she undergoes a nightmare. A demonic, ape-like incubus crouches on her chest, while a horse with glowing eyes and flared nostrils emerges from the shadows.
The painting's subject is not drawn from history, the Bible, or literature. It is likely that the painting started as a visual pun, with the horse as a self-conscious reference to folklore. The woman's pose may derive from the Vatican's Ariadne, and the style of the incubus from figures at Selinunte, an archaeological site in Sicily.
'The Nightmare' is one of the first paintings to depict an intangible idea, and the artist's precise intentions remain elusive. The painting has yielded many interpretations, including a personal portrayal of the erotic aspects of love lost, a reference to popular themes in 19th-century psychoanalysis, or a representation of sleep paralysis.
'The Nightmare' caused an uproar when it was first presented at the Royal Academy in London in 1782. Critics were taken aback by its overt sexuality and horrified fascination. The image became popular, and Fuseli produced at least three other versions. The painting also inspired parodies in political satire and Gothic fiction.
