Elena Rossi
The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD covered the town of Pompeii in ash, preserving its art and architecture. The town was never reoccupied, providing a unique glimpse into the past. The people of Pompeii decorated their homes with frescoes, mosaics, and graffiti. The four main styles of Roman wall painting are structural (or incrustation), architectural, ornamental, and intricate. The frescoes were often painted using the fresco technique, with colours added to fresh plaster to increase durability. The colours used were black, red, yellow, green, and blue. The frescoes depicted a range of subjects, including mythology, erotica, trompe-l'œil, religious practices, sports, and family portraits. The mosaics, made from tiny pieces of coloured glass, stone, or ceramic, also depicted a range of themes, from religion to war campaigns.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Styles | Four distinct styles: structural (incrustation), architectural, ornamental, and intricate |
| Subjects | Landscapes, birds, sea creatures, Greek mythology, erotic scenes, daily life, news, and events |
| Colours | Red (cinnabar), yellow ochre, black, green, blue, light blue (caesuleum), white (attioru), dark yellow, red ochre (rubrica), reddish (sandyx or syricum) |
| Techniques | Fresco (on wet plaster), mosaics (coloured glass, ceramic, or stone), bas relief stucco work |
| Artists | Fufidius Successus, pictor parietarius (wall painter), pictor imaginarius (figure painter) |
| Functions | Decoration, expression of beliefs and values, documentation of history and events |
| Significance | Insight into Roman art, society, and culture; evidence of daily life, beliefs, and practices |
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What You'll Learn
Frescoes and mosaics
The discovery of Pompeii and its rich pictorial heritage has opened up new debates on Roman art. The frescoes and mosaics of Pompeii are a testament to the artistic skills of the ancient Romans and offer valuable insights into their daily lives.
Frescoes
Frescoes, or murals, were commonly used to decorate the houses of Pompeii. The wall paintings were executed using the fresco technique, where the colours were added to fresh plaster, allowing the painting to penetrate inwards and last longer. The discovery of frescoes in Pompeii has provided examples of four distinct styles of Roman wall painting: structural (or incrustation), architectural, ornamental, and intricate. Each style built upon the previous one, with the first two styles belonging to the Republican period and the latter two to the Imperial period.
The First Style, or the structural style, was simple and bare, imitating marble panels using plaster and colours, with black, yellow, and red as the predominant shades. The Second Style, or the architectural style, featured trompe-l'œil compositions and walls decorated with architectural elements. The Third Style, also known as "real painting" or Egyptianizing, saw a return to simpler layouts and single-colour backgrounds, with embellished figures and accentuated decorative elements, including Egyptian motifs. The Fourth Style, known as "architectural illusionism" or ornamental, took the compositional exaggeration of the Second Style even further, with architectural features reduced to unreal designs.
Some notable examples of frescoes in Pompeii include the dining room fresco in the House of Vettii, depicting a series of Cupids engaged in various occupations, and a fresco in the same house showing Hercules as a child. Another significant fresco is found in the House of Actius Anicetus, portraying a riot between the citizens of Pompeii and Nuceria in 59 BCE during gladiatorial games. Additionally, the recently discovered frescoes in a thermopolium (a fast-food shop) depict engaging images of a sea nymph, a rooster, and ducks.
Mosaics
Mosaics, created from tiny pieces of coloured glass, ceramic, or stone, were also prevalent in Pompeii. They depicted a range of themes, from religion and sex to sports and war campaigns. One of the most famous mosaics in Pompeii is the Alexander Mosaic, discovered in 1831. It portrays a battle between Alexander the Great and King Darius III of Persia and is believed to depict either the Battle of Issus in 333 BCE or the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BCE. Other mosaics in Pompeii feature simple patterns, such as labyrinths and checkerboards, as well as depictions of lizards, fish, and ducks.
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Four distinct styles
The four distinct styles of painting found in Pompeii are known as the Structural, Architectural, Ornamental, and Intricate styles. These styles were originally delineated and described by the German archaeologist August Mau through the excavation of wall paintings at Pompeii, which is one of the largest groups of surviving Roman frescoes. Each style following the first contains aspects of the previous styles. The first two styles (incrustation and architectural) were from the Republican period, while the last two (ornamental and intricate) were from the Imperial period.
The First Style, also known as the Structural or Incrustation style, was commonplace between the 2nd century and the middle of the 1st century B.C. It is a simple and bare style of painting that tends to imitate marble panels through the use of plaster and colours, with black, yellow, and red as the predominant colours. This style was also used with other styles for decorating the lower sections of walls. Examples of the First Style can be found in the Samnite House in Herculaneum and the House of Faun and the House of Sallust in Pompeii.
The Second Style, also known as the Architectural style or illusionism, dominated the 1st century B.C. and lasted until the middle of the 1st century A.D. During this period, walls were decorated with architectural features and trompe-l'œil (trick of the eye) compositions. The use of green and blue became more prominent, and common subjects included Greek mythology and sex. A fresco depicting the god of fertility, Priapus, balancing his enlarged phallus with some money is an example of the art during this period.
The Third Style, also called "real painting" or "Egyptianizing", belongs to the 1st century A.D. It sees a return to a simpler style, with a flat, single-colour background and embellished figures. This style is characterised by the presence of miniature paintings that often depicted landscapes, birds, and sea creatures. The House of the Painters at Work in Pompeii showcases this style, with preparatory drawings made with a brush soaked in an ochre pigment on a white background.
The Fourth Style, also referred to as "architectural illusionism" or simply Ornamental, recalls the composition of the second style but becomes increasingly exaggerated and unreal. This style was a sign of wealth and typified the houses of the rich merchants of Pompeii. It is characterised by the advancement of still life with intense space and light, and shading became very important. The Ixion Room in the House of the Vettii in Pompeii is a prime example of this style.
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Mythological and erotic themes
Art was a significant mode of communication in ancient Pompeii. It was used to tell stories, impart knowledge about history and mythology, and for aesthetic and decorative purposes.
Mythological Themes
The ancient Roman world was replete with myths and legends that were central to their understanding of themselves and their place in the world. Consequently, mythology was one of the most popular themes in Pompeian art.
The Roman appreciation for Greek themes, history, and art was significant, and Greek culture was often repurposed within a Roman context. For instance, a mosaic of Alexander the Great depicts the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, with Alexander's breastplate bearing the head of Medusa from Greek mythology. Another example is the painting of Bacchus and Venus, which was a common subject Romans chose for decorating their walls.
The cult of Bacchus (or his Greek equivalent, Dionysus) was a hot topic in ancient Roman society. A Pompeian wall painting is believed to depict an initiation into this mystery cult, showing a young woman going through the stages of initiation with the god in the lap of his mortal consort, Ariadne.
The myth of Leda and the swan is another example of mythological art in Pompeii. This fresco, discovered in 2018, depicts the moment when Zeus, disguised as a swan, either seduces or rapes Leda, queen of Sparta.
Other mythological themes found in Pompeian art include the mural of Mars and Venus, believed to model proper family roles for those entering a home, and the many frescoes of Venus, the divine protector of Pompeii, who was closely associated with eroticism and prostitution in ancient Rome.
Erotic Themes
Erotic art was also prevalent in Pompeii and has been both exhibited as art and censored as pornography. The ubiquity of erotic imagery and items indicates a more relaxed attitude toward sex in ancient Rome compared to current Western culture.
Erotic paintings and frescoes were found not only in brothels and public baths but also in private homes, decorating the walls of dining rooms and salons. One such example is the fresco of Leda and the swan mentioned above, which sends a message of sensuality.
The Suburban Baths outside the city walls featured explicit sex scenes above numbered boxes, presumably to help bathers remember their lockers. The Lupanar, a brothel, also featured erotic paintings of male and female bodies in various states of coupling, displayed above the stone beds.
Other examples of erotic art in Pompeii include a statuette of Priapus in the House of the Vettii, which was used as a fountain, and a drawing by César Famin of a Roman fresco from the Osteria della Via di Mercurio, which has since been destroyed.
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Greek influence
The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD preserved many artefacts in Pompeii, revealing the influence of Greek and Hellenistic cultures on its art, architecture, and religion. Greek influences were transmitted to Pompeii via the Greek colonies in Magna Graecia (Southern Italy), which were formed in the 8th century BC.
The influence of Greek drama on Pompeii is evident in the House of the Faun, where a mosaic depicts two tragic theatrical masks surrounded by garlands, flowers, and fruits. Additionally, 15 drama masks made of plaster were discovered in 1749 during a dig funded by King Charles of Bourbon. Greek literature also influenced Roman culture, and scenes from Greek literature have been discovered in Pompeii.
Greek mythology and philosophy were also important influences on Pompeian culture. Wealthy inhabitants of Pompeii sought to align themselves with Greek culture by decorating their private houses with frescoes of scenes from Greek mythology. For example, the Three Graces fresco, discovered in the House of Titus Dentatus Panthera, depicts the minor Greek goddesses dancing naked in a circle. Another example is the Alexander Mosaic, which features Alexander's breastplate bearing the head of Medusa from Greek mythology.
The influence of Greek religion is also evident in Pompeii. The Romans adapted the Greek god Heracles and incorporated him into their religion as Hercules, the son of Jupiter (the Roman equivalent of Zeus). The House of the Garden of Hercules, located west of Pompeii’s Palestra, contains a large lararium dedicated to Hercules, including a marble statuette, an altar, and an aedicula.
Greek architecture influenced the construction of buildings in Pompeii. The Basilica, built between 120 BC and 78 BC, was constructed in the Hellenistic style, featuring Greek Corinthian and Ionic columns. The Large Palaestra of Pompeii also adopted Greek architectural elements with its large, open colonnaded spaces.
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Pompeian painters
The discovery of Pompeii has provided a wealth of information about Roman painting, which was previously scarce and limited to fragments of frescoes. The wall paintings in Pompeii were executed using the fresco technique, where the basic outline of the composition was prepared and colours were then added to fresh plaster, allowing the painting to penetrate inwards and last longer.
The paintings in Pompeii can be divided into four distinct styles, originally delineated and described by German archaeologist August Mau. These styles are:
- Structural or Incrustation: This style was commonplace between the 2nd century and the middle of the 1st century BC. It is a simple and bare style, imitating marble panels through the use of plaster and colours, with black, yellow and red as the predominant shades.
- Architectural: This style dominated the 1st century BC, with walls decorated with architectural features and trompe-l'œil (trick of the eye) compositions.
- Real Painting or Egyptianizing: This style, belonging to the 1st century AD, saw a return to simpler layouts and strokes. The background becomes flat and is rendered with a single colour, while figures are embellished and decorative elements accentuated. This style often included Egyptian motifs.
- Architectural Illusionism or Ornamental: The composition becomes increasingly exaggerated and unreal, with a focus on ornamentation. This style was a sign of wealth and was common in the houses of rich merchants.
The paintings in Pompeii covered a range of subjects, from landscapes and nature to mythology and scenes of daily life. One of the most famous works is the Alexander Mosaic, which depicts a battle between Alexander the Great and King Darius III of Persia. Other notable examples include frescoes in the House of Vettii, such as a series of Cupids representing different occupations, and a well-preserved fresco of Hercules as a child.
The painters of Pompeii were often anonymous, and their work was considered part of the overall decoration of a house or building. However, experts can recognise the work of individual groups of artists through their representation of certain details. Fufidius Successus, with his workshop in Via Castrice, was the best-known painter in Pompeii.
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