Elena Rossi
Salvator Mundi, or 'Savior of the World', is an oil painting on a walnut panel believed to have been created by Leonardo da Vinci between 1499 and 1510. The painting depicts Jesus Christ in Renaissance attire, making the sign of the cross with his right hand and holding a crystal orb in his left hand. The crystal orb, which represents the celestial sphere of the heavens, has been the subject of much debate among art historians and scholars, with some arguing that it should have distorted the view of its holder if it were made of solid glass. The expression on Jesus' face has also been a point of contention, with some critics describing it as ghostly and feeble. Despite these controversies, the painting sold for a record-breaking $450.3 million in 2017, making it the subject of intense scrutiny and numerous theories.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date | c. 1499–1510 |
| Artist | Attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, but disputed |
| Subject | Jesus Christ |
| Dress | Renaissance attire |
| Hand gesture | Blessing with the right hand |
| Object held | Transparent, non-refracting crystal orb in the left hand |
| Orb represents | Earth, the 'celestial sphere' of the heavens |
| Painting material | Oil on walnut panel |
| Painting style | Dramatic structure of light and darkness |
| Hair | Ringlets |
| Eyes | Intense, with marks above |
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What You'll Learn
Jesus' expression and hand gestures
The Salvator Mundi painting, attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, depicts Jesus Christ in Renaissance attire, making a gesture of blessing with his right hand, while holding a transparent, non-refracting crystal orb in his left hand.
Art historians have noted that the painting's depiction of Jesus has feeble features, with a ghostly expression, and that the head-on composition is stiff and unlike Leonardo's characteristic twisting. The eyes of Christ have been described as bearing a raw intensity, with a haunting expression. The right hand, raised in blessing, is also noted for its soft modelling.
The crystal sphere, or orb, in Jesus' left hand is thought to represent the 'celestial sphere' of the heavens, signalling his role as Salvator Mundi, or 'Savior of the World'. Leonardo was an avid expert on rock crystal, and the orb in the painting has been described as having "an amazing series of glistening little apertures", characteristic of rock crystal.
The orb has been a point of contention, with some critics noting the unconvincing representation of a glass globe. However, others have argued that Leonardo's scientific knowledge of optics is evident in his accurate rendering of the glass sphere, and that any distortion of light would only be slight.
The painting's dramatic tension, particularly in Christ's eyes and right hand, along with its mysterious nature, has led some to consider it a masterpiece, despite questions surrounding its authorship and the condition of the original work.
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The crystal sphere
The orb held by Jesus in the Salvator Mundi is not the only representation of a sphere in the history of art. Other versions and copies of the Salvator Mundi often depict a brass, solid spherical orb, a terrestrial globe, or a globus cruciger. Some appear to be made of translucent glass or show landscapes within them. The crystal sphere in da Vinci's painting, however, stands out for its unique characteristics and the stories it helps convey, making the painting a masterpiece from a genius.
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The painting's condition and restoration
The Salvator Mundi painting, attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, was in a state of severe damage before its restoration. The painting had been damaged by previous restoration attempts and was attributed to Bernardino Luini, a follower of Leonardo. The painting had a woodworm-infested marouflage panel on its back, which was removed by specialist Monica Griesbach. However, the removal caused the painting to break into seven pieces, which Griesbach reassembled with adhesive and wood slivers.
The restoration process began in 2006, led by renowned art restorer Dianne Dwyer Modestini, who oversaw the reconstruction of the support and the removal of overpainting. Modestini's extensive restoration led to some critics calling the painting a contemporary work and a "masterpiece by Modestini". The restoration was so extensive that it prevented a definitive attribution to Leonardo da Vinci, with some specialists proposing that he only contributed certain elements.
The painting had a relatively recent varnish that was sticky and uneven, with some crude touch-ups. The more recent resins and paints were removed with an acetone/mineral spirits mixture, while remnants of older retouches were removed with acetone, heptane, and ammonia. Some carefully retouched damages were retained as their enamel-like surface provided a useful base for further reintegration.
The restoration process also included scientific examinations to elucidate the painting's materials and techniques. Various analytical methods were employed, such as stereomicroscopy, visible and fluorescent light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and Raman microspectroscopy. The pigments characterized included lead white, vermilion, red iron oxide earth, and natural ultramarine, among others.
Despite the extensive restoration, some critics noted that the painting still appeared odd, with the face of Christ appearing ghostly and his features weak. The attribution of the painting to Leonardo da Vinci remains a subject of debate among scholars and critics. The painting's questionable attribution, along with its serious defects, has led to it being considered one of the most controversial paintings of the 21st century.
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Leonardo da Vinci's self-portrait theory
The Salvator Mundi, or "Savior of the World", is a painting attributed to the Italian High Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci, dated c. 1499–1510. The painting depicts Jesus Christ in Renaissance attire, making a gesture of blessing with his right hand while holding a crystal orb—representing the "celestial sphere" of the heavens—in his left hand.
While the painting is thought to be an original work by Leonardo da Vinci, this attribution has been disputed by some leading specialists, who propose that he may have only contributed certain elements, or that the extensive restoration prevents a definitive attribution. One of the most notable features of the painting is the intense gaze of Jesus, who looks directly at the viewer.
Now, onto Leonardo da Vinci's self-portrait theory:
One theory surrounding the Salvator Mundi painting is that it may be a self-portrait of Leonardo da Vinci himself. This theory, explored by Merleau-Ponty and discussed in "The American Scholar", suggests that Leonardo identified with Jesus as a "fatherless" child, and that the painting is a way for Leonardo to address his own emotions and circumstances.
According to this interpretation, Leonardo may have seen himself in the figure of Jesus, who is often portrayed as a fatherless son. By painting himself as Salvator Mundi, or Savior of the World, Leonardo could have been creating an enduring symbol of his own childhood experience of illegitimacy, turning it into a powerful religious symbol. This theory highlights the emotional depth that the painting conveys, particularly in the eyes of Christ, which have been described as haunting and intense.
Additionally, the theory suggests that Leonardo used his artwork as a means of self-expression, conveying personal stories and emotions through the grand figure of Jesus. This interpretation aligns with the idea that Leonardo had a penchant for games and riddles, as well as a desire to expose something about himself in a veiled manner.
While the self-portrait theory adds an intriguing layer of interpretation to the Salvator Mundi, it is important to note that the attribution of the painting to Leonardo da Vinci is still debated, and the intention or meaning behind the artwork remains a mystery to many.
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The identity of the patron
One theory suggests that the patron was a member of the French royal family. This speculation stems from the painting's association with King Louis XII of France. It is known that Leonardo da Vinci painted the "Salvator Mundi" during his time in France, and some believe that the king himself may have commissioned the work. This theory holds weight, given Leonardo's close relationship with the French court during that period. However, there is no concrete evidence to confirm this assumption, and the identity of the patron remains a mystery within the French royalty.
Another possibility is that a member of the Italian nobility or a wealthy Italian family commissioned the painting. This idea is supported by the fact that Leonardo spent the majority of his life in Italy and had strong connections with the Italian elite. He was well-regarded and sought after by Italian patrons, so it would not be surprising if one of them had commissioned the "Salvator Mundi." Once again, the absence of definitive proof makes it challenging to attribute the painting's patronage to a specific Italian noble or family.
Some art historians have also speculated that the patron could have been a religious order or a church. This theory is based on the religious subject matter of the painting, depicting Christ in a blessing pose with symbolic religious attributes. Leonardo was known to have worked for churches and religious institutions throughout his career, so it is plausible that a religious organization may have commissioned the "Salvator Mundi." Yet, again, there are no records or indications to confirm this belief.
The true identity of the patron who commissioned the "Salvator Mundi" remains unknown, adding to the allure and enigma surrounding this remarkable painting. The theories presented offer potential avenues for further exploration and investigation, but without concrete evidence, the patron's identity will likely remain a fascinating unknown in the art world.
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Frequently asked questions
Salvator Mundi, meaning "Savior of the World", is a painting of Jesus Christ by Leonardo da Vinci, dated c. 1499–1510.
Jesus is depicted making a gesture of blessing with his right hand, while holding a transparent, non-refracting crystal orb in his left hand.
The orb represents the 'celestial sphere' of the heavens and Earth. Leonardo was an expert on rock crystal, and the orb in the painting has been described as having "an amazing series of glistening little apertures".
Jesus is wearing anachronistic blue Renaissance attire.
Salvator Mundi is one of the only 20 paintings by Leonardo da Vinci that have been discovered. It is also one of his most mysterious and investigated pieces of art, subject to scientific, political, and cultural controversies.
