Leo Martínez
Persian miniature paintings, or small paintings on paper, became a significant genre in Persian art in the 13th century, receiving Chinese influence after the Mongol conquests. The highest point in the tradition was reached in the 15th and 16th centuries. The importation of Chinese artifacts and the direct contact between China and Persia via trade routes through Central Asia initiated a vogue for chinoiserie, which was reflected in the illustrations of various Persian manuscripts.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Vertical format | Introduced in the 14th century, possibly influenced by Chinese scroll paintings |
| Superimposing several planes | Arranging figures and motifs in overlapping rows on the manuscript page |
| Lighter, more subdued colouring | Approximating the monochromatic tonality of ink painting |
| Placement of figures in space | Learned from the Chinese to place figures more effectively in space |
| Flowering branch | A motif borrowed from Chinese painting, often combined with a traditional figural composition |
| Unrestricted space and infinite planes | Persian painters gained much more freedom through these Chinese traditions |
| Sprinkling gold on page margins | A Chinese custom |
| Use of motifs | Chinoiserie motifs were adapted by Persian artists from the 13th to 15th centuries |
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What You'll Learn
Use of vertical format
The use of the vertical format in Persian manuscripts is thought to be influenced by Chinese scroll-paintings. The earliest miniatures in Persian manuscripts appeared unframed horizontally across the page, following Byzantine and Arabic precedents. However, in the 14th century, the vertical format was introduced, possibly influenced by the Chinese. This format is characteristic of the most famous Persian manuscripts, which were luxury manuscripts created for the court. The vertical orientation dictated many characteristics of the style. The miniatures usually occupied a full page, sometimes even spreading across two pages to create a square or horizontal "landscape" format.
The vertical format allowed for more freedom in the arrangement of figures and motifs. Persian painters learned from the Chinese to place their figures more effectively in space, superimposing several planes and arranging figures and motifs in overlapping rows. This was a departure from the traditional Persian style, where figures were tied to a ground line with solid colour backgrounds. The vertical format also allowed for the inclusion of panels of text or captions inside the picture area, which was enclosed in a frame of ruled lines and a broader band of gold or colour.
The use of the vertical format in Persian manuscripts is a clear example of the mutual influence between Chinese and Persian artistic traditions. The importation of Chinese artefacts and the direct contact between the two cultures through trade routes facilitated the exchange of artistic techniques and motifs. This cross-cultural exchange resulted in the development of new styles and formats in Persian manuscripts, demonstrating the impact of Chinese influence on Persian art.
The vertical format in Persian miniatures also influenced the decoration of page margins, which became more elaborate. Margins were sometimes inserted with different coloured paper, sprinkled with gold following a Chinese custom, or painted with colours or gold. This attention to detail and incorporation of decorative elements enhanced the overall aesthetic of the manuscripts and contributed to the unique style of Persian miniatures.
The adoption of the vertical format in Persian manuscripts showcases the artistic talent and creativity of Persian artists. By adapting and building upon Chinese influences, Persian painters created highly aesthetic works of art that revealed the natural and spiritual beauties of the world. The rich artistic and poetic expressions conveyed through these illustrations transcended cultural boundaries and contributed to the enduring legacy of Persian miniature paintings in the world of art.
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Motifs and subject matter
Persian miniature paintings, or small paintings on paper used as book illustrations or separate works of art, began to show Chinese influence after the Mongol conquests in the 13th century. The highest point in the tradition was reached in the 15th and 16th centuries.
Before the Chinese influence was introduced, Persian art was tied to a ground line with solid colour backgrounds or in clear accordance with indigenous artistic traditions. However, once influenced by the Chinese, Persian artists gained much more freedom through the Chinese traditions of "unrestricted space and infinite planes".
The importation of Chinese artefacts initiated a vogue for Chinoiserie, which is exemplified in the leaves of the so-called "Fatih albums", believed to have belonged to the contemporary Ottoman sultan Mehmet II Fatih. These albums contain original Chinese drawings and prints on silk and paper, as well as Persian copies. The subjects range from religious (Buddhist and Taoist) to historical and literary.
Chinese influence is also noticeable in the court manuscripts of the Il-khanids, with their capital, Tabriz, being the centre of artistic and cultural activity and in direct contact with China via trade routes through Central Asia. The Chinese impact is particularly evident in manuscripts such as the Manāfeʿ al-ḥayawān by Ebn Boḵtīšūʿ copied at Marāḡā in 1297 or 1299.
Persian painters adopted a considerable number of Chinese motifs, such as a flowering branch, sometimes behind a balustrade or fence, which was often combined with a more traditional figural composition. They also learned from the Chinese to place their figures more effectively in space, using devices such as superimposing several planes and arranging figures and motifs in overlapping rows on the manuscript page.
Other characteristics of Persian manuscripts that may have been influenced by Chinese painting include the vertical format of the miniatures, which may have been introduced in the 14th century due to the influence of Chinese scroll paintings. The miniatures normally occupy a full page, later sometimes spreading across two pages to regain a square or horizontal "landscape" format. The rest of the page is often decorated with dense designs of plants and animals in muted colours, often gold and brown.
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Freedom of space and planes
The freedom of space and planes in Persian manuscripts was influenced by Chinese painting, particularly after the Mongol conquests. Before Chinese influence was introduced, Persian art was characterised by figures tied to a ground line with solid colour backgrounds. However, once influenced by the Chinese, Persian painters adopted the concept of "unrestricted space and infinite planes". This freedom of space and planes is evident in Persian miniatures, which are small paintings on paper, often used as book illustrations.
The vertical format of Persian miniatures, introduced in the 14th century, may have been influenced by Chinese scroll paintings. This format allowed for more dynamic compositions and the use of multiple planes. The importation of Chinese artefacts, including paintings on silk, initiated a vogue for chinoiserie among Persian artists. They began to incorporate Chinese motifs and compositions into their work, such as flowering branches combined with traditional figural compositions.
The impact of Chinese taste is also reflected in the lighter, more subdued colouring of Persian manuscripts, approximating the monochromatic tonality of ink painting. This period of cultural exchange saw Persian painters learn to place their figures more effectively in space, utilising overlapping rows and superimposed planes. The influence of Chinese scroll paintings also encouraged the use of large-scale horizontal compositions in Persian manuscripts.
The Mongol conquests and the subsequent establishment of the Ilkhanate as a branch of the Mongol Empire had a significant impact on Persian art. The new court sponsored a cultural revival, importing many Chinese works and artists and fostering a long-established tradition of narrative painting. This exchange of ideas and techniques led to the development of new styles and formats in Persian manuscripts, including the use of unrestricted space and infinite planes.
While Chinese influence played a significant role in the evolution of Persian art, it did not fundamentally alter the underlying themes, style, iconography, and technique of Persian manuscript painting. Instead, it provided Persian artists with new tools and perspectives to express their unique artistic vision and spiritual intelligence. This blend of influences resulted in the creation of magnificent Persian manuscripts that continue to be celebrated in museums around the world.
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Lighter, more subdued colouring
The use of lighter and more subdued colouring in Persian manuscripts was influenced by Chinese painting. The importation of Chinese artefacts to Persia via trade routes through Central Asia initiated a vogue for chinoiserie, which was emulated by painters in the Timurid court workshops.
Persian painters adopted the Chinese tradition of using ink and wash painting, which resulted in a more monochromatic tonality in their work. This is evident in "The Sacred Tree of Buddha", from the former Royal Asiatic Society Jāmeʿ al-tawārīḵ, where the lighter and more subdued colouring reflects the impact of Chinese taste.
The use of ink and wash painting in Chinese art has a long history, dating back to the Song Dynasty and even earlier. Ink painting, or "shui mo hua", gradually became the mainstream style of Chinese painting, with artists paying more attention to expressing their emotions through their work. The relationship between ink and colour in Chinese painting has been a subject of debate, with some advocating for the emphasis of ink over colour, while others prefer the opposite.
The introduction of Chinese influence gave Persian painters more freedom in their compositions. They began to place their figures more effectively in space, utilising unrestricted space and infinite planes. This can be seen in the superimposition of several planes in "Alexander and His Warriors Fighting a Dragon" from the great Mongol Šāh-nāma, now in a private collection in Paris.
The highest point of the Persian miniature tradition, heavily influenced by Chinese painting, was reached in the 15th and 16th centuries.
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Flowering branch motif
The flowering branch motif is a characteristic of Persian manuscripts that can be traced back to Chinese paintings. This motif, often combined with a traditional figural composition, was borrowed from Chinese artistic traditions and incorporated into Persian miniature paintings and manuscripts.
The adoption of the flowering branch motif is an example of the influence of Chinese artistic styles on Persian art, particularly during the 13th century and onwards. The Mongol conquests and the subsequent establishment of the Ilkhanate as a branch of the Mongol Empire played a significant role in introducing Chinese artistic influences to Persia. The importation of Chinese artifacts and the arrival of Chinese artists in Persia exposed Persian painters to new styles and techniques.
The flowering branch motif is often depicted in Persian manuscripts behind a balustrade or fence, adding a sense of depth and perspective to the composition. This use of overlapping planes and effective placement of figures in space was a departure from traditional Persian artistic tendencies, which favoured crowded picture spaces with motifs concentrated in the frontal plane.
The flowering branch motif is not just an aesthetic choice but also carries symbolic value. In ancient cultures, plants and flowers were intimately connected to religious expression and the will of deities. The incorporation of this motif in Persian manuscripts may reflect a desire to infuse religious or symbolic meanings into their artwork.
While the adoption of Chinese motifs like the flowering branch enriched Persian artistic traditions, it did not fundamentally alter the underlying themes, style, iconography, and techniques of Persian manuscript painting. Instead, it provided Persian artists with new tools and perspectives to express their unique artistic vision while still maintaining their cultural and artistic identity.
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