Marcus Chen
The 13th century saw the continued use of egg tempera, a permanent, fast-drying paint made by mixing dry powdered pigments with egg yolk and water. This paint was known for its luminosity and ability to create fine details. To avoid cracking, the paint was applied in thin layers or glazes, giving medieval paintings a highly finished appearance. The use of oil as a binding medium for paint was also well understood by the 13th century, with linseed oil being the drying oil of choice. During this time, painters also used mineral pigments such as red ochre, yellow ochre, umber, and lime white, which were dug out of the earth and shaped into sticks with knives.
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What You'll Learn
- Egg tempera was a common method of painting in the 13th century
- Natural mineral pigments were dug from the earth and shaped into sticks
- Linseed oil was used as a drying oil for paint
- Ultramarine was used to paint the Virgin's cloak
- Other pigments used included red ochre, yellow ochre, umber, and lime white
Egg tempera was a common method of painting in the 13th century
Egg tempera was a primary method of painting until the 16th century when it was replaced by oil paint. However, it was kept alive by Eastern Orthodox monasteries, who considered the use of egg yolk sacred in the creation of religious images. Tempera was the primary medium for panel painting in the European Medieval and Early Renaissance periods.
The 13th century saw the development of painting from Byzantine influence to a new, modern style. This development was particularly noticeable in France in a series of magnificent Bibles Moralisées, and in England in numerous manuscripts. In Germany, a graceful pictorial style did not become popular. Instead, the country's art continued to be influenced by Byzantine conventions, as exemplified in the Zackenstil—an early Gothic style of jagged lines.
In the 13th century, Duccio di Buoninsegna was one of the most innovative and influential figures in Western art, introducing a new naturalism and interest in space, structure and emotion. Giotto was another artist who made extensive use of gold leaf in his work.
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Natural mineral pigments were dug from the earth and shaped into sticks
Mineral pigments were widely used in the 13th century, with colours such as red ochre, yellow ochre, umber, and lime white being commonly employed by painters. These pigments were likely obtained from the earth and shaped into sticks or crayons, similar to the practices of prehistoric artists.
Ochre, a mineral pigment, was particularly popular and could be coloured red, yellow, or brown by iron oxides (rust) and iron hydroxides. Other mineral pigments used in the 13th century and beyond included azurite, malachite, verdigris, and orpiment. These minerals provided a range of colours, such as blue, green, and yellow.
The use of mineral pigments in paint continued well into the Middle Ages, with artists mixing these pigments with water and egg to create egg tempera paint. This technique, established by the 13th century, allowed the paint to adhere to the substrate and created the highly finished appearance characteristic of medieval paintings.
The process of creating paint from natural mineral pigments involved grinding the minerals into a fine powder and then mixing them with a binder, such as egg, to create a substance that could be applied to a surface. This knowledge was documented in ancient texts, such as Cennino Cennini's "The Craftsman's Handbook", which provided instructions on artistic techniques, including the application of gold leaf.
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Linseed oil was used as a drying oil for paint
Oil paint is a type of slow-drying paint that consists of particles of pigment suspended in a drying oil, most commonly linseed oil. Oil paint was used in the 13th century to detail tempera paintings.
Linseed oil, also known as flax oil, is made from the dried seeds of the flax plant. It has been used in painting since at least the 12th century, with Theophilus Presbyter, a 12th-century German monk, recommending its use. Linseed oil was originally used as a binder, with artists adding pigment to create their own paint.
When mixed with oil paint, linseed oil can slow the drying time, improve the flow of paint on the canvas, and make the pigment more transparent. It can also create a glossy finish and enhance the sheen of the paint. The slow-drying properties of linseed oil allow artists to develop a painting gradually, adding layers of colour more quickly.
However, it is important to use the correct amount of linseed oil, as too much oil within thicker layers can cause cracking as it dries. Linseed oil can also cause slight yellowing if the ratio of paint to oil is not optimal.
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Ultramarine was used to paint the Virgin's cloak
In the 13th century, the predominant Veneto-Byzantine influence on the High Romanesque style was reflected in the interior paintings of the Castle Chapel in the north of Italy. The paintings inside the chapel include the Virgin's cloak, which was painted using ultramarine.
Ultramarine is a deep blue pigment that was originally made by grinding lapis lazuli into a powder. This semi-precious stone, also known as "the blue stone" in Latin, was mined in Afghanistan and traded to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt as early as the third millennium BCE. The first noted use of lapis lazuli as a pigment can be seen in 6th and 7th-century paintings in Zoroastrian and Buddhist cave temples in Afghanistan. The lengthy and time-intensive grinding and washing process made the natural pigment quite valuable, roughly ten times more expensive than the stone it came from and even more expensive than gold.
Ultramarine was the finest and most expensive blue pigment used by Renaissance painters. It was often used for the robes of the Virgin Mary, symbolising holiness, humility, and purity, and signifying the wealth of the patron who commissioned its use. Artists employed it sparingly, and it was reserved for significant works of art. The pigment was sold at the best quality and price in Venice, which historically was the port of entry for lapis lazuli in Europe.
The name "ultramarine" comes from the Latin word "ultramarinus", meaning "beyond the sea", as the pigment was imported by Italian traders during the 14th and 15th centuries from mines in Afghanistan. In 1826, French chemist Jean-Baptiste Guimet developed a synthetic version of ultramarine, rendering it more affordable and accessible to artists.
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Other pigments used included red ochre, yellow ochre, umber, and lime white
During the 13th century, artists made paint by mixing pigment with water and egg before application, a technique known as egg tempera painting. Mineral pigments such as red ochre, yellow ochre, umber, and lime white were commonly used during this period.
Red ochre, also known as hematite, is a reddish variety of iron oxide and has been used as a pigment for thousands of years. It is derived from limonite, a mineral containing iron hydroxide, which is the main ingredient in all ochre pigments. Red ochre is created when limonite is roasted, transforming it into hematite. It has been used symbolically in burials, perhaps to represent blood or as a form of ritual rebirth.
Yellow ochre, the most commonly used type of ochre, is an iron oxide hydroxide with warm and earthy tones. Like red ochre, it is a natural earth pigment that is mined rather than made. Yellow ochre has been used in art for centuries, dating back to the ancient Egyptians. It can be mixed with other pigments to create a range of hues and shades.
Umber is a natural earth pigment consisting of iron oxide and manganese oxide. Its colour can vary between shades of yellow, red, and green, depending on the proportions of its components. When heated, umber becomes a more intense colour, almost black. Umber was not frequently used in medieval art due to its subdued colour, but it became more popular during the Renaissance for its versatility, earthy appearance, availability, and inexpensiveness.
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Frequently asked questions
By the 13th century, oil painting was widespread in northern Europe, with linseed oil being the drying oil of choice. Paint was also made using egg tempera, where the pigment was mixed with water and egg.
The paint was made from natural, earth-based materials. The pigment was made from plants, sand, and different types of soil. For red paint, they would use natural red earth, crimson, or rust. Yellow was made from natural dyes such as turmeric and saffron or natural pigments like yellow ochre. Green was made from the mineral malachite, blue from azurite, and white from chalk.
Paint was used in illuminated manuscripts, which were handmade books made from parchment and the dried hides of animals. Paint was also used in wall paintings, such as those found in the Byward Tower in Westminster Abbey, which dates back to around 1380.
