Marcus Chen
During the Dark Ages, a period of conflict, violence, and disease that followed the decline of the Roman Empire, painting was not a traditional art form for the tribal peoples of northern Europe. However, the art of the Dark Ages was heavily influenced by the late Roman world, and Christian images were in widespread use. The majority of surviving paintings from this period are large-scale paintings on the walls of buildings and small-scale paintings in manuscripts. These illuminated manuscripts were made by monks and used natural materials, including parchment made from animal skins, quills made from bird feathers or reeds, and ink made from oak tree gallnuts. The paint used was predominantly egg tempera, a permanent, fast-drying paint made by mixing egg yolk, water, and powdered pigments.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Period | 4th to 6th to 8th centuries |
| Art forms | Mural paintings, illuminated manuscripts, ivory carvings, funerary sculptures |
| Themes | Christian faith, biblical narratives, morality, government |
| Colours | Red, blue, green, gold, yellow |
| Materials | Natural pigments, egg tempera, gesso, gum, gold/silver leaf, parchment, animal hides, linen |
| Techniques | Flat forms, linear details, jewel-like appearance |
| Preservation | Manuscripts well-preserved due to natural materials |
| Regions | Italy, British Isles, France, Germany, Austria, Spain |
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What You'll Learn
Materials used to paint
During the Dark Ages, the art of painting was not a traditional practice for the tribal peoples—Franks, Vandals, Goths, Angles, and Saxons—who migrated into the western provinces of the old Roman Empire. However, their craftsmen were skilled in working with fine metals, leather, wood, and semiprecious stones.
The materials used for painting during this period were predominantly natural and included:
- Egg tempera, made by hand-mixing dry powdered pigments into egg yolk and water, was the most popular and commonly used paint.
- Mineral pigments such as red ochre, yellow ochre, umber, and lime white.
- Natural red earth, crimson, and rust for red hues.
- Natural dyes like turmeric and saffron or natural pigments like yellow ochre for yellow shades.
- The mineral malachite, ground into a powder, for green.
- Azurite for blue.
- Chalk for white.
- Gold or silver leaf was applied to the pages using saliva, giving the manuscripts their "illuminated" name.
- Gesso or gum (tree sap) was used on page borders.
- Binders such as glue, honey, water, milk, urine, and human earwax were used if egg yolk was unavailable.
The paintbrushes of the time were made from bird feathers or reeds, which were soaked in water, dried, and hardened with heated sand. The paint was applied to animal skin parchment, which was then sewn together and covered with wooden boards and dried animal hides for protection.
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Techniques and tools
During the Dark Ages, the art of Classical Antiquity was replaced by a new style that prioritised the viewer/worshipper's ability to read the biblical parable without aesthetic distractions. This shift marked the transition from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages. Painting was not a traditional art form for the tribal peoples—Franks, Vandals, Goths, Angles, and Saxons—who migrated into the western provinces of the old Roman Empire during the 4th to 6th centuries. However, they were skilled workers of fine metals, leather, wood, and semiprecious stones.
The most common types of painting that have survived from the early Middle Ages are large-scale paintings on the walls of buildings and small-scale paintings in manuscripts. Illuminated manuscripts, in particular, have been well-preserved due to the resilience of the animal skin they were made from and the protection of wooden boards. These books were made by monks and cherished as symbols of everlasting sacred knowledge. The paint used in these manuscripts was predominantly egg tempera, a permanent, fast-drying, and long-lasting paint made by hand-mixing dry powdered pigments into egg yolk and water. If egg yolk was not available, binders such as glue, honey, water, milk, urine, or human earwax were used. To create different colours, natural materials such as red earth, crimson, rust, turmeric, saffron, yellow ochre, malachite, azurite, and chalk were mixed with the binders. Gold and silver leaf were also used as decoration.
In addition to manuscripts, mural paintings on the walls and ceilings of catacombs featured narratives from the Christian faith. Religious funerary decorations and ivory carvings were also common during this period.
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Subjects and themes
During the Dark Ages, the Christian church played a significant role in shaping the subjects and themes of paintings. By the 6th century, Christian images were ubiquitous, serving as icons for worship and narrative compositions that instructed the unlettered in the sacred scriptures. The strong emphasis on the suffering of Christ and other sacred figures distinguished Western art of this period from Byzantine and classical art.
The art of the Dark Ages also reflected the cultural influences of the tribal peoples migrating into the western provinces of the old Roman Empire, including the Franks, Vandals, Goths, Angles, and Saxons. These groups were skilled craftsmen in fine metals, leather, wood, and semiprecious stones, but painting was not one of their traditional arts. However, in Italy, artistic production continued, influenced by the late Roman world, where painting had been widely employed.
The materials used for painting during the Dark Ages were primarily natural and earth-based. Colours were derived from natural sources such as red earth, crimson, rust, turmeric, saffron, yellow ochre, the mineral malachite, azurite, and chalk. The paint itself was often egg tempera, made by mixing dry powdered pigments with egg yolk and water. This paint was permanent, fast-drying, and long-lasting. Other binders used included glue, honey, milk, urine, and human earwax.
The subjects of paintings during the Dark Ages were predominantly religious, with a focus on Christian narratives and symbolism. Mural paintings on the walls and ceilings of catacombs depicted scenes from the Christian faith, and religious funerary decorations were also common. Illuminated manuscripts, decorated with gold and silver leaf, featured intricate designs and biblical scenes. These manuscripts were created by monks and cherished as symbols of sacred knowledge.
In addition to religious themes, the art of the Dark Ages also included secular subjects. For example, works that encouraged good government and morality paintings that warned against sinful behaviour. Architectural designs and civic buildings also became a focus, with structures like the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena and the Palazzo della Signoria in Florence showcasing a new interest in civic spaces for government activities.
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Influences and inspirations
The Dark Ages, a period of conflict, violence, and disease, followed the decline of the Roman Empire and preceded the European Renaissance. During this time, urban life collapsed, patronage of the arts ceased, and centuries-old Mediterranean artistic traditions died out. However, artistic production continued in some parts of Italy, albeit in a reduced form. The various tribal peoples migrating into the western provinces of the old Roman Empire, such as the Franks, Vandals, Goths, Angles, and Saxons, were not traditionally painters, but they were skilled craftsmen in other mediums.
The Christian Church played a significant role in the art of the Dark Ages. By the 6th century, it had developed an extensive iconographic repertory, and Christian images were widely used as icons and narrative compositions. These images became indispensable to orthodox Christianity and were often the most tangible and arresting features for new converts. The masters of Europe were also influenced by their desire to emulate the late Roman world, where painting was widely employed.
The art of the Dark Ages was not limited to religious themes; it also included secular themes and works that encouraged good governance and warned against sinful behaviour. Mural paintings on the walls and ceilings of catacombs featured Christian narratives, and religious funerary decorations were also common. Ivory, with its religious iconography and status as a symbol of wealth, was another material used during this period.
Manuscripts, or "illuminated manuscripts," were also a significant form of art during the Dark Ages. These were primarily created by monks in monasteries, who used quills made from bird feathers or reeds and ink made from gallnuts found on oak trees. The term "illuminated" refers to the use of gold or silver leaf decoration, applied with saliva to the edges of the pages. The paint used was typically egg tempera, a permanent, fast-drying paint made by mixing powdered pigments with egg yolk and water. Other binders such as glue, honey, milk, urine, and human earwax were also occasionally used. Natural pigments were sourced from materials like red earth, saffron, yellow ochre, malachite, azurite, and chalk.
Islamic art was widely imported and admired by European elites during the Middle Ages, and its influence is also worth noting. It encompassed various media, including illustrated manuscripts, textiles, ceramics, metalwork, and glass, and its influence extended to regions like Islamic Spain and Northern Africa.
The understanding and appreciation of art from the Dark Ages evolved over time. The Renaissance generally dismissed it as "barbarous," and the term ""Gothic" was coined as a pejorative term to characterise the art between the demise of Classical art and the Renaissance. However, in the 19th century, there was a growing interest in recording and appreciating the significant legacy of this period in art, craft, and architecture.
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Survival and preservation
The Dark Ages, a period following the decline of the Roman Empire in the 6th century, witnessed a transformation in artistic traditions. Urban life collapsed, and patronage of the arts diminished, leading to the near disappearance of centuries-old Mediterranean artistic training and production. However, some artistic centres in Italy, like Rome, managed to preserve unbroken traditions of artistic patronage and production.
During this period, the Christian church played a significant role in the preservation of art. The church's extensive iconographic repertory included Christian images used as icons and symbolic compositions, which were indispensable to orthodox Christianity. These images were employed as instructional tools, narrating the stories of sacred scripture to the unlettered. The church also commissioned the illumination and embellishment of religious texts, such as the Gospels and liturgical books. These illuminated manuscripts, crafted from resilient animal skin and protected by wooden boards, have endured for centuries. The paint used in these manuscripts was predominantly egg tempera, a permanent, fast-drying, and long-lasting medium created by mixing dry powdered pigments with egg yolk and water.
The materials used in creating these works of art also contributed to their preservation. The absence of synthetic preservatives, fillers, and petroleum-based additives in natural paints made them more archival and luminous. The use of natural pigments, such as red earth, saffron, and azurite, along with UV resistance and humidity resistance, further enhanced the longevity of the artwork.
Additionally, the focus on religious themes in art during the Middle Ages ensured the survival and preservation of certain works. Mural paintings in catacombs and funerary decorations reflected Christian narratives and beliefs. These artworks were often protected within the confines of religious spaces, safeguarding them from the elements.
The Gothic Revival movement in the 19th century also played a role in the preservation and appreciation of medieval art. While the Renaissance had previously dismissed medieval art as "barbarous", the 19th century witnessed a growing interest in recording and valuing the artistic legacy of the "dark ages", including their unique artistic styles and techniques.
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Frequently asked questions
The bookmakers of the Dark Ages were mostly monks who used parchment (animal skins) for the pages of books and dried hides of animals for the covers. The paint used was predominantly egg tempera, which was made by hand-mixing dry powdered pigments into egg yolk and water. Other materials used for painting included natural red earth, crimson, rust, turmeric, saffron, yellow ochre, malachite, azurite, and chalk.
The subjects of paintings in the Dark Ages were mostly religious, including narratives from the Christian faith and funerary decorations. There was also a strong emphasis on the suffering of Christ and other sacred figures.
Some surviving paintings from the Dark Ages include the 12th-century frescoes in St Botolph's Church, England, and the Dark Ages Illumination made at the Monastery of Montecassino in Southern Italy around 1270.
